Ethnography is a qualitative research method rooted in anthropology. Researchers immerse themselves in the daily lives of the subjects they study. This method is crucial in Media and Communications because it allows researchers to understand how people interact with media in their everyday contexts. Ethnography provides deep insights into the cultural, social, and individual dimensions of media use. These are often overlooked by quantitative research methods.
Historical Background of Ethnography
Ethnography has its origins in anthropology, particularly in the works of early anthropologists like Bronisław Malinowski and Margaret Mead. Malinowski’s study of the Trobriand Islanders and Mead’s work in Samoa are classic examples of ethnographic research. These researchers spent extended periods living with the communities they studied, learning their languages, and participating in their daily routines. This immersive approach allowed them to understand the cultures they studied from an insider’s perspective; a concept known as “emic” understanding.
In Media and Communications, Ethnography began to gain prominence in the 1970s and 1980s. Researchers realised that to truly understand how people use and interpret media, it was essential to observe them in their natural settings. This shift marked the beginning of “Audience Ethnography”. Scholars focused on how audiences engage with media in their everyday lives (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2019).
The Ethnographic Method
Ethnography is a flexible and adaptive research method. The process usually begins with the researcher selecting a specific group or community to study. This could be anything from a small village to an online community. The researcher then spends a significant amount of time observing and participating in the daily activities of this group. This participation is key; the researcher must become a part of the community to gain a true understanding of it.
Participant Observation
Participant observation is the core of ethnographic research. It involves the researcher taking part in the daily activities of the group they are studying while also observing and recording these activities. The dual role of participant and observer can be challenging. The researcher must balance involvement with the community and the objective observation needed to analyse their behaviours critically.
For example, a media ethnographer might spend time with a family in their home to understand how they consume television. The researcher would not only observe which programmes the family watches but also participate in discussions about the shows. Therefore, observe how family members interact during viewing, and note how television fits into their broader daily routines (Morley, 1986).
Field Notes & Reflexivity
Field notes are the primary data collection tool in Ethnography. These notes are detailed descriptions of observations, interactions, and thoughts that the researcher records during and after their time in the field. It is essential to write these notes as soon as possible to capture the details while they are still fresh in the researcher’s mind.
Reflexivity is also a critical component of Ethnography. Reflexivity means that the researcher must constantly reflect on their role in the research process and how their presence might influence the group they are studying. For instance, a researcher might notice that people behave differently when they know they are being observed. Acknowledging and accounting for these changes is part of the ethnographic process (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2019).
In-Depth Interviews
In-depth interviews complement participant observation. These interviews allow the researcher to explore specific topics in more detail. Thus, gaining insights into the participants’ perspectives, feelings, and interpretations. The interviews are typically semi-structured, with the researcher preparing a list of topics or questions to cover but allowing the conversation to flow naturally.
For example, in an ethnographic study of social media use, the researcher might interview participants about their motivations for using specific platforms, their experiences of online interactions, and how these activities impact their offline lives. These interviews can reveal deeper layers of meaning that are not always visible through observation alone.
Applications of Ethnography in Media & Communications
Researchers have applied Ethnography in various ways in Media and Communications research. This method offers a unique lens for exploring how media integrates into people’s lives, shapes identities, and influences social relations.
Audience Studies
One of the primary areas where Ethnography has been applied is in audience studies. Traditional media research often relied on surveys and ratings to understand audiences. However, these methods could not capture the complex ways in which people engage with media. Ethnography filled this gap by providing a more nuanced understanding of audience behaviour.
For instance, David Morley’s study “The Nationwide Audience” (1980) is a seminal work in this field. Morley conducted ethnographic research on how different social groups interpreted the same television programme. His findings revealed that people from different social backgrounds interpreted media content in varied ways, shaped by their cultural and social contexts. This study highlighted the importance of considering the audience’s socio-cultural background in media analysis.
Media Production
Ethnography is also valuable in studying media production. By observing and participating in the processes of media creation, researchers can gain insights into the decision-making processes, power dynamics, and cultural influences that shape media content.
For example, an ethnographer might study a newsroom to understand how journalists select and frame news stories. By attending editorial meetings and accompanying journalists in the field, the researcher can observe how they negotiate news values and how external pressures, such as political or commercial interests, influence the final product. This approach reveals the complexities and challenges of producing media in a real-world context.
Digital Ethnography
With the rise of digital media, Ethnography has adapted to study online communities and digital interactions. Digital Ethnography, also known as Netnography, involves studying communities that exist in online spaces, such as social media platforms, forums, or virtual worlds.
For instance, researchers might study how fan communities organise online, create and share content, and develop their cultural norms and practices. By immersing themselves in these online environments, ethnographers can understand how digital media facilitates new forms of social interaction and identity construction.
A notable example is the work of Christine Hine. She conducted ethnographic research on the use of the internet in everyday life. Hine’s work highlighted how the internet is not just a tool for communication but a cultural space where people live out significant parts of their lives (Hine, 2000).
Challenges of Ethnographic Research
While Ethnography offers many benefits, it also presents several challenges that researchers must navigate. These challenges include ethical considerations, time commitment, and the subjective nature of the research.
Ethical Considerations
Ethnographic research often involves close interaction with participants, which raises several ethical issues. Researchers must obtain informed consent from their participants. This approach ensures that participants understand the nature of the research and how researchers will use their data. In some cases, obtaining consent can become complicated, especially in contexts where people might not fully grasp the implications of the research.
Moreover, ethnographers must be mindful of privacy and confidentiality. Since ethnographic research often involves detailed observations of people’s lives, there is a risk of exposing sensitive information. Researchers must take care to anonymise their data and consider how their findings might impact the communities they study.
Time Commitment
Ethnography is a time-intensive research method. It requires researchers to spend extended periods in the field, often months or even years. This time commitment can be challenging, especially for researchers working under time constraints or with limited resources.
The long duration of ethnographic research also means that it is often difficult to cover large populations. Instead, Ethnography typically focuses on small, specific groups, which can limit the generalisability of the findings. However, the depth of understanding gained from Ethnography often outweighs this limitation.
Subjectivity & Reflexivity
Ethnography is inherently subjective. The researcher’s background, beliefs, and experiences can influence their observations and interpretations. This subjectivity is not necessarily a weakness, but it does require the researcher to be constantly reflexive. Reflexivity involves critically examining one’s role in the research process and acknowledging how personal biases might affect the findings.
For example, a researcher studying a community with very different cultural norms from their own might unintentionally interpret behaviours through the lens of their cultural background. Being reflexive means recognising these biases and striving to understand the community’s practices from their perspective.
The Value of Ethnography in Media & Communications
Despite its challenges, Ethnography remains a valuable method in Media and Communications research. It offers unique insights that are difficult to obtain through other research methods. By immersing themselves in the contexts they study, ethnographers can uncover the rich, complex ways in which media influences people’s lives.
Richness of Data
One of the main strengths of Ethnography is the richness of the data it produces. Unlike surveys or experiments, which often reduce social phenomena to numbers and variables, Ethnography captures the complexities and nuances of human behaviour. This richness allows researchers to develop a deep understanding of their subjects. Thus, providing insights that can lead to more effective and culturally sensitive media practices.
Grounded Theory Development
Ethnography often leads to the development of grounded theory. Grounded theory is an inductive approach where theories emerge from the data rather than being imposed from the outset. This approach is particularly useful in Media and Communications, where rapidly changing technologies and cultural practices often outpace existing theories.
For example, an ethnographic study of how people use mobile phones in a particular community might reveal new patterns of behaviour that challenge existing theories of media consumption. By allowing theories to emerge from the data, Ethnography can contribute to the development of more accurate and relevant models of media use.
Influence on Policy & Practice
Ethnographic research can also have a significant impact on policy and practice. By providing a detailed understanding of how people engage with media, Ethnography can inform the design of media content, platforms, and policies that are more aligned with users’ needs and cultural contexts.
For instance, an ethnographic study of children’s television viewing habits might reveal that certain programmes reinforce gender stereotypes. These findings could then be used to advocate for more inclusive and diverse content that better reflects the realities of children’s lives.
Conclusion
Ethnography is a powerful tool in Media and Communications research. It allows researchers to gain a deep, nuanced understanding of how media is embedded in the social and cultural contexts of people’s lives. While it presents challenges, such as ethical considerations and the time-intensive nature of the research, the insights gained through ethnography are invaluable. By immersing themselves in the worlds they study, ethnographers can uncover the rich, complex ways in which media shapes and is shaped by human behaviour.
In a rapidly changing media landscape, where new technologies and platforms are constantly emerging, Ethnography remains a vital method for exploring the cultural and social dimensions of media use. As Media and Communications continue to evolve, ethnographic research will undoubtedly play a crucial role in helping us understand the intricate relationships between media, culture, and society.
References
Hammersley, M. and Atkinson, P. (2019) Ethnography: Principles in Practice. 4th edn. London: Routledge.
Hine, C. (2000) Virtual Ethnography. London: SAGE Publications.
Morley, D. (1980) The Nationwide Audience: Structure and Decoding. London: BFI.
Morley, D. (1986) Family Television: Cultural Power and Domestic Leisure. London: Routledge.